supplementNot FDA-approvedOTC supplementSold in the US as an unregulated dietary supplement ingredient; not FDA-approved as a drug for any indication
PQQBenefits, Dosage & Interactions
Also known as: pyrroloquinoline quinone
Pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ) is a redox cofactor found in various foods, including human breast milk. It is classified as a quinone molecule, indicating its ability to participate in oxidation-reduction reactions. Research on PQQ focuses on cognition and mood and mitochondrial function.
Researched by DoseRoutine R&D TeamReviewed for accuracy by Nicholas Alexander, RSELast updated
Evidence: Strong — 3 human randomized trials published.
Evidence strengthStrong · 4/4
PreclinicalStrong human evidence
3 human randomized trials published.
Plasma half-life
Not applicable
Typical timing
morning
Default unit
mg
What published protocols report
Ranges documented in the literature, shown for reference. DoseRoutine does not recommend an amount — your prescriber or the product label sets the dose.
Reported for PQQ in the cited sources. Published ranges are not dosing advice.
References & evidence
Documents the PQQ entry is written from. Each number matches an inline marker above.
- [1]Effect of Dietary Pyrroloquinoline Quinone Disodium Salt on Cognitive Function in Healthy Volunteers: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Parallel-Group StudyShiojima Y, Takahashi M, Takahashi R, Moriyama H, Bagchi D, Bagchi M, Akanuma M · Journal of the American Nutrition Association · 2022 · Peer-reviewed · PMID 34415830
- [2]Pyrroloquinoline quinone disodium salt improves brain function in both younger and older adultsTamakoshi M, Suzuki T, Nishihara E, Nakamura S, Ikemoto K · Food & Function · 2023 · Peer-reviewed · PMID 36807425
- [3]The impact of six-week dihydrogen-pyrroloquinoline quinone supplementation on mitochondrial biomarkers, brain metabolism, and cognition in elderly individuals with mild cognitive impairment: a randomized controlled trialBaltic S, Nedeljkovic D, Todorovic N, Ranisavljev M, Korovljev D, Cvejic J, Ostojic J, LeBaron TW, Timmcke J, Stajer V, Ostojic SM · The Journal of Nutrition, Health & Aging · 2024 · Peer-reviewed · PMID 38908296
How to track PQQ doses
Tracking PQQ well takes four fields and a habit. Here is what to record so the log is still useful in three months.
- 1
Add the dose and unit
Log PQQ with its dose in mg so totals stay comparable over time — including days when you split the dose or skip it.
- 2
Set the time of day and food rule
Typical timing is morning. Reminders fire at that time and can export to your calendar.
- 3
Check it against the rest of the stack
Run PQQ through the interaction checker against everything else in the routine — supplements, peptides, hormones and prescriptions — before it becomes a daily habit.
- 4
Log adherence, not intentions
Mark each dose taken, skipped or delayed as it happens. Weeks of honest logs are what make an adherence rate or a trend line meaningful; retrospective guessing is not.
- 5
Review against outcomes
Review PQQ alongside your logged metrics and any relevant blood work every few weeks before changing the dose, so the change is a response to data rather than to a good or bad day.
What to log each time
- Dose in mg
- Time of day
- Taken / skipped / delayed
- Any side effects or notable changes
References & Evidence
Sources on this page that document PQQ dosing, timing and safety.
- [1]National Center for Biotechnology Information View source
Educational information only — not medical advice. Dose ranges vary by person, indication and prescriber.
What is PQQ studied for?
What is PQQ?Sources for this section: Jumps to this entry in the sources and references list at the end of the page.
Pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ) is a redox cofactor found in various foods, including human breast milk. It is classified as a quinone molecule, indicating its ability to participate in oxidation-reduction reactions. While not currently recognized as a vitamin, PQQ shares some functional similarities with B vitamins due to its involvement in enzymatic processes. It was first identified as a growth factor for bacteria and later found in higher organisms. PQQ is concentrated in mitochondria, the organelles responsible for cellular energy production. Research has focused on its potential roles in antioxidant activity, mitochondrial biogenesis (the formation of new mitochondria), and cellular signaling pathways. (Sourced from PubChem, NIH ODS)
What does the research say about PQQ?
Tap a section to expand.
PQQ functions primarily as an enzymatic cofactor and a potent antioxidant. Its quinone structure allows it to undergo reversible oxidation-reduction cycles, enabling it to accept and donate electrons. This redox cycling capability is central to its proposed biological activities. In the context of mitochondrial function, PQQ is thought to interact with proteins and enzymes within the electron transport chain, potentially enhancing energy production efficiency. Furthermore, PQQ is believed to influence cellular signaling pathways involved in mitochondrial biogenesis, which is the process by which cells increase their mitochondrial count. By upregulating genes associated with mitochondrial biogenesis, PQQ may contribute to improved cellular energy status and resilience. Its antioxidant properties stem from its ability to neutralize free radicals, thereby reducing oxidative stress that can damage cellular components, including mitochondria. (Sourced from PubChem, NIH ODS)
Source for this section: Sources for How does PQQ work?: Jumps to this entry in the sources and references list at the end of the page.
Research into PQQ's potential benefits primarily centers on cognitive function, energy metabolism, and antioxidant support. Studies, often conducted in animal models or in vitro, suggest that PQQ may support mitochondrial health, which is foundational for cellular energy production. In some human studies, PQQ supplementation has been associated with modest improvements in markers related to cognitive function, such as memory and attention, particularly in older adults or when combined with other compounds like coenzyme Q10. These cognitive benefits are hypothesized to arise from PQQ's purported neuroprotective effects and its role in supporting brain energy metabolism. Regarding energy metabolism, PQQ is thought to enhance the efficiency of mitochondrial respiration and potentially induce mitochondrial biogenesis, which could lead to increased cellular energy capacity. As an antioxidant, PQQ helps to mitigate oxidative stress, a factor implicated in various chronic conditions and the aging process. It is important to note that many of these potential benefits still require more extensive human clinical trials to be conclusively established. (Sourced from Examine.com, NIH ODS)
The evidence supporting PQQ's benefits is emerging, with a mix of in vitro, animal, and limited human clinical studies. For cognitive function, some small-scale human trials have investigated PQQ, sometimes in combination with CoQ10. For instance, a double-blind, placebo-controlled study presented data suggesting PQQ supplementation could lead to improvements in attention and working memory in middle-aged and elderly individuals. However, these improvements were often modest and require replication in larger, more diverse populations. Regarding mitochondrial biogenesis and energy metabolism, much of the evidence comes from cell culture and animal models, demonstrating PQQ's ability to activate pathways associated with mitochondrial growth and improved energy efficiency. While these findings are promising, directly translating them to significant, measurable effects in humans requires further investigation. The antioxidant properties of PQQ are generally well-supported by in vitro studies, showing its capacity to scavenge various reactive oxygen species. A comprehensive review by the NIH Office of Dietary Supplements acknowledges the ongoing research but cautions that definitive health claims require more robust human evidence. (Sourced from NIH ODS, Examine.com)
PQQ is generally considered safe at commonly studied oral doses. Reported side effects in human clinical trials have been infrequent and mild, often comparable to placebo groups. These may include minor gastrointestinal upset, such as nausea or abdominal discomfort, or headaches. However, due to the limited long-term safety data, particularly for prolonged use or very high doses, it is important for individuals to exercise caution. There is no established severe toxicity associated with PQQ within the typical supplementation ranges. As with any supplement, individual reactions can vary. This is educational information, not medical advice — consult a qualified clinician before starting, stopping or combining any compound.
Individuals with pre-existing medical conditions, particularly those affecting metabolic pathways or mitochondrial function, should consult a healthcare professional before considering PQQ supplementation. Pregnant or breastfeeding women are generally advised to avoid PQQ due to insufficient safety data in these populations. People undergoing surgery should discuss PQQ use with their surgeon, as there is limited information on its potential interaction with anesthesia or perioperative bleeding risk. While side effects are rare, new or worsening symptoms should prompt immediate consultation with a clinician. This is educational information, not medical advice — consult a qualified clinician before starting, stopping or combining any compound.
There are no absolute well-established contraindications for PQQ supplementation in healthy individuals at commonly studied doses. However, due to limited research in specific populations, PQQ is not recommended for pregnant or breastfeeding women. Individuals with severe kidney or liver disease, or those with known allergies to PQQ or its excipients, should avoid its use. Anyone with a serious medical condition or taking multiple prescription medications should seek personalized medical advice before considering PQQ. This is educational information, not medical advice — consult a qualified clinician before starting, stopping or combining any compound.
While specific, well-documented adverse interactions between PQQ and prescription medications are not extensively reported in current literature, caution is advised. Given PQQ's potential influence on metabolic pathways and antioxidant status, it theoretically *could* interact with medications that affect blood sugar regulation or oxidative stress, although this is largely speculative without direct evidence. Individuals on anticoagulant or antiplatelet medications should exercise caution, as the impact of PQQ on blood clotting is not fully understood. It is always prudent to inform your healthcare provider about all supplements you are taking, including PQQ, especially if you are on any prescription drugs, to identify potential interactions. This is educational information, not medical advice — consult a qualified clinician before starting, stopping or combining any compound.
PQQ is typically consumed in the morning, often with a meal or after breakfast. This timing is generally chosen due to its purported role in energy metabolism and to potentially align with the body's natural circadian rhythm. There is no strict rule regarding food intake; PQQ can be taken either with or without food. However, consuming it with a meal may help to reduce the potential for minor gastrointestinal upset in sensitive individuals. Individual responses to timing can vary, and some may prefer to take it earlier in the day to avoid any potential mild stimulatory effects that could interfere with sleep, although such effects are not commonly reported. Individual needs vary — talk to a licensed clinician.
Source for this section: Sources for When should you take PQQ?: Jumps to this entry in the sources and references list at the end of the page.
What interacts with PQQ?
| Interacts with | Severity | Type | What happens | What to do |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| CoQ10 (Ubiquinol) | Complementary | Compound pairConfidence: theoretical | Often paired for mitochondrial support via complementary mechanisms.Source pending | Fine to pair. |
| Any glp1 + supplement | Note | Category ruleConfidence: theoretical | GLP-1 medications slow stomach emptying, changing how/when oral supplements absorb; rapid weight loss raises the importance of protein and micronutrients.Source pending | Time oral supplements when nausea is lowest; prioritize protein and micronutrients; discuss with your provider. |
| Any supplement + medication | Note | Category ruleConfidence: theoretical | Some supplements change how the body processes medications (absorption, liver enzymes, or additive effects).Source pending | Specific pairs are checked against a licensed drug database and shown with their own severity. Always confirm with your provider or pharmacist. |
Frequently asked questions about PQQ
Currently, PQQ is not officially classified as a vitamin by major nutritional organizations. While it shares some functional characteristics with B vitamins, such as involvement in enzymatic reactions, it is not considered essential for the short-term survival of organisms in the same way traditional vitamins are. Research is ongoing to further understand its role in human health. (Sourced from NIH ODS)
PQQ is widely distributed in various foods, though typically in low concentrations. Good dietary sources include fermented products like natto, green tea, parsley, green peppers, kiwi fruit, and human breast milk. These dietary amounts are generally much lower than those provided by typical PQQ supplements. (Sourced from PubChem)
The time frame for experiencing potential effects from PQQ supplementation can vary. Some individuals report feeling subtle changes in energy or cognitive function within a few weeks, while others may require longer periods of consistent supplementation, often 8-12 weeks, for more noticeable effects. Its mechanisms, such as mitochondrial biogenesis, involve cellular processes that take time to induce and manifest in physiological changes. (Sourced from Examine.com)
PQQ is often researched and taken in combination with other supplements, particularly Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10), as they are both involved in mitochondrial health. Other common combinations include antioxidants or cognitive enhancers. Generally, PQQ appears to be well-tolerated with many common supplements, but it is always advisable to discuss your supplement regimen with a healthcare provider to avoid any potential interactions or simply ensure the combination is appropriate for your individual needs. (Sourced from Examine.com)
PQQ disodium salt is the most common and well-studied form of PQQ used in dietary supplements. This form has been used in most of the human clinical trials exploring PQQ's potential benefits and is generally considered bioavailable and stable. Other forms are not as widely available or researched.
Interaction risk for PQQ comes from the rest of the stack: other supplements, prescription medicines, hormone therapy and peptides. Because PQQ is usually taken in the morning, most avoidable conflicts come from what else lands in that same window. Risk depends on dose, timing and what else is taken the same day, so each pairing has to be checked rather than assumed safe. The free checker at https://doseroutine.com/interaction-checker covers PQQ with no sign-up.
PQQ is typically taken in the morning. Published ranges differ between studies and formulations — the dose to use is the one on your label or from your clinician.
There is no single answer for PQQ plus TRT. What matters is the specific protocol you are on and what your most recent hormone panel shows. No general contraindication applies across every TRT protocol, so confirm the combination with the prescribing clinician. See the free TRT interaction reference: https://doseroutine.com/trt-supplement-interactions
Pairing PQQ with peptides has to be assessed one peptide at a time, because GLP-1 agonists, secretagogues, healing peptides and melanocortins do not share an interaction profile. Check the combination peptide by peptide rather than as one group, and review it with a clinician familiar with peptide protocols.
Published frequency for PQQ varies by protocol and formulation, so the label or prescription is what sets it. It is typically taken in the morning. Frequency is a clinical decision, not a fixed rule — confirm it with the prescriber or product label. Comparison of apps that keep a schedule like this: https://doseroutine.com/best-dose-tracking-apps
The effect of a missed dose of PQQ depends on the protocol and formulation you are on. Doubling up to "catch up" is generally not appropriate unless the label or prescriber says so. Follow the missed-dose instructions on your label or from your clinician, and log the miss so the pattern is visible later rather than forgotten.
For PQQ the useful record is the dose, the time it was actually taken, and what else was taken in the same window. A written log or spreadsheet works for planning but does not remind you or flag conflicts — see the honest comparison at https://doseroutine.com/vs/spreadsheet and the wider roundup at https://doseroutine.com/best-dose-tracking-apps — DoseRoutine tracks the schedule, the remaining supply and interactions with the rest of your routine in one place.
Which studies looked at PQQ?
Peer-reviewed research indexed in PubMed. Each entry links to the original record.
- 1.Pyrroloquinoline-Quinone Is More Than an Antioxidant: A Vitamin-like Accessory Factor Important in Health and Disease Prevention(opens PubMed in a new tab)Biomolecules · 2021 · PMID 34680074 · https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34680074/
- 2.Effect of Dietary Pyrroloquinoline Quinone Disodium Salt on Cognitive Function in Healthy Volunteers: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Parallel-Group Study(opens PubMed in a new tab)J Am Nutr Assoc · 2022 · PMID 34415830 · https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34415830/
- 3.Mini-review: Functions and Action Mechanisms of PQQ in Osteoporosis and Neuro Injury(opens PubMed in a new tab)Curr Stem Cell Res Ther · 2020 · PMID 30526470 · https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30526470/
- 4.Pyrroloquinoline quinone disodium salt improves brain function in both younger and older adults(opens PubMed in a new tab)Food Funct · 2023 · PMID 36807425 · https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36807425/
Sources cited on this page
Specific documents referenced by the numbered markers above. Each number matches the marker in the text.
- PubChem CID 1024(opens in a new tab)National Center for Biotechnology Information · pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/1024
Verify at
Publisher search links for PQQ. These are places to check the information — they are not citations, so they are not numbered.
- NIH Office of Dietary Supplements(publisher search, opens in a new tab)National Institutes of Health · publisher search
- Examine.com(publisher search, opens in a new tab)Examine.com · publisher search
- Mayo Clinic(publisher search, opens in a new tab)Mayo Clinic · publisher search
- PubMed literature search(publisher search, opens in a new tab)National Library of Medicine · publisher search
- DailyMed labeling archive(publisher search, opens in a new tab)U.S. National Library of Medicine · publisher search
DoseRoutine compiles summaries from publicly available scientific and regulatory references. Always verify important decisions with a licensed clinician. How we source and review this information.
What is the short answer on PQQ?
Plain-text summary, safe to quote verbatim:
Pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ) is a redox cofactor found in various foods, including human breast milk. It is classified as a quinone molecule, indicating its ability to participate in oxidation-reduction reactions. Research on PQQ focuses on cognition and mood and mitochondrial function.
Source: DoseRoutine — https://doseroutine.com/library/pqq
Cite this page
Using this in an article, AI answer, or research note? Please attribute:
DoseRoutine. (2026). PQQ — Overview, Benefits & Side Effects. Retrieved from https://doseroutine.com/library/pqq
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